This study investigates the availability of preposition stranding (p-stranding) in intrasentential code-switching (CS) among US heritage speakers of Mexican Spanish. P-stranding is allowed in English, but in Spanish the preposition is traditionally pied-piped with the DP. Law (2006) argues Spanish is subject to a syntax-morphology-interface condition, which prevents the extraction of a DP from a PP due to D-to-P incorporation. Previous research has suggested that such incorporation depends upon the features inherent to the preposition, with p-stranding only accepted with Spanish-to-English switches (Koronkiewicz, 2022). We expand on that study since it only included one preposition (with/con). Furthermore, it did not explicitly test pied-piping, nor did it include matrix wh-questions, a common context for p-stranding. Results from a written acceptability judgment task show that the participants: (i) dispreferred p-stranding in Spanish compared to pied-piping; and accepted p-stranding in English more than pied-piping. As for CS, they dispreferred p-stranding for English-to-Spanish compared to pied-piping, while for Spanish-to-English it was the inverse. Overall, these asymmetrical p-stranding results align with previous findings (Koronkiewicz, 2022) further suggesting that it is the language of the preposition that dictates incorporation.

The multidimensional nature of bilingualism demands ecologically valid and inclusive research methods that can capture its dynamism and diversity. This is particularly relevant when assessing language proficiency in minoritized and racialized communities, including heritage speakers (HSs). Motivated by a paradigm shift in bilingualism research, the present study joined current efforts to establish best practices for assessing language proficiency among bilingual individuals accurately and consistently, promoting ecological validity and inclusivity. Specifically, we examined the reliability and validity of objective and subjective proficiency assessments ubiquitously used in second language (L2) and bilingualism research to assess Spanish proficiency, within a sample of HSs of Spanish in the United States (US). We also sought to understand the relationships between these proficiency assessments and a subset of heritage language (HL) experience factors. To our knowledge, this is the first study to examine the reliability and validity of these proficiency assessments and their relationship with HL experience factors with HSs of Spanish in the US in a multidimensional way. Forty-three HSs of Spanish completed the Bilingual Language Profile questionnaire, including self-reports of proficiency and information about HL experience and two objective proficiency assessments: a lexical decision task, namely the LexTale-Esp, and a vocabulary and grammar task, often referred to as the “Modified DELE”. Our findings revealed high internal consistency for both objective proficiency assessments and medium correlations between them, supporting their reliability and validity. However, our results also revealed inconsistent relationships between subjective proficiency assessments and HL language experience factors. These findings underscore the dynamic interplay between these HSs’ objective and subjective proficiency, and HL experiences and use across different contexts. Additionally, they highlight the limitations of relying on any single proficiency assessment, aligning with previous research that emphasizes the need for multidimensional proficiency assessments and language experience factors to capture the dynamic and diverse nature of bilingualism. By critically evaluating the reliability and validity of existing objective and subjective proficiency assessments alongside HL experience factors, our study aims to shed light on the best practices of assessing language proficiency among bilingual individuals, specifically HSs of Spanish in the US, in an ecologically valid and inclusive manner.

Introduction: It has been argued that certain words can “trigger” intrasentential code-switching. While some researchers suggest that cognates establish triggering at the lexical level, others have argued that words that lack direct translations are more natural stories switch. Yet to be tested experimentally is to what extent different types of lexical items influence the acceptability of mixed utterances.

Methods: The current study investigates this methodological consideration for code-switching research by having early US Spanish-English bilinguals (i.e., heritage speakers of Spanish) complete an acceptability judgment task with a 7-point Likert scale directly comparing cognates (e.g., sopa “soup”) and culturally specific items (e.g., pozole “traditional Mexican soup”) in otherwise identical grammatical switched sentences (N = 24).

Results: The results showed that there was no significant effect of condition (p = 0.623) suggesting that cognates and language-specific items are equally acceptable in code-switched sentences. Indeed all conditions were rated on average above 6.

Discussion: These findings show that in this context, judgment tasks are not affected differently by these types of lexical items.

Intraclausal code-switching is a common bilingual phenomenon that occurs when multiple languages are used in the same utterance. Research has shown that such switching is not arbitrary, but rather systematic and rule-governed. By looking at the syntactic interactions between languages, we can shed light on our understanding of a variety of structural factors as well as bilingual grammars more generally. The present study focuses on data from Spanish- English inalienable possession, which is manifested differently in the two languages (e.g., he washed his face vs. él se lavó la cara ‘(lit.) he to himself washed the face’). The results of an acceptability judgment task completed by US heritage speakers of Spanish suggest that regardless of the direction of the switch, an English-like structure is preferred with a possessive determiner (e.g., he washed su cara), and in the case of a Spanish verb switched with an English object, the preverbal clitic is required as well (e.g., él se lavó his face). Overall, the findings support the view that multiple bilingual alignments (Sánchez, 2019) can be accessed by these individuals both in their monolingual Spanish and in code-switching, suggesting that the bilingual alignments hypothesis can be a useful lens for understanding code-switching patterns.

The majority of US university students studying foreign languages are enrolled in introductory courses that are typically part of a coordinated curriculum. Such courses conventionally include the assessment of second language (L2) writing skills. However, given that these assessments can be broadly conceived and vary by program, their design and implementation are subject to differing opinions and beliefs from the stakeholders involved. In an effort to better understand how their views of L2 writing assessments overlap and/ or diverge, the present study examined instructor (N = 28) and student (N = 183) beliefs in Spanish language programs at three public US universities using an online Likert‐scale and ranked‐choice questionnaire. Results revealed that although there was misalignment regarding the pedagogical purpose of such assignments, in general there was broad agreement among the two groups, including the use of a writing‐to‐learn approach to develop both specific and broad linguistic skills.

doi: 10.1111/flan.12609

This study tests the acceptability of preposition stranding in the intrasentential code- switching of US heritage speakers of Spanish. Because languages vary when extracting determiner phrases from prepositional phrases, known as preposition stranding or p-stranding, a contrast arises for Spanish–English bilinguals. English allows p-stranding, but in Spanish the preposition is traditionally pied-piped with the DP. Heritage speakers of Spanish, though, have shown variability, with child sequential bilinguals requiring said pied-piping, but simultaneous bilinguals allowing p-stranding in Spanish. Participants (n = 24) completed a written acceptability judgment task with a 7-point Likert scale. The task included code-switched sentences (n = 16) with p-stranding, switching from either English to Spanish or vice versa, with comparison monolingual equivalents for Spanish (n = 8) and English (n = 8) included as well. The results found that the simultaneous bilinguals accepted p-stranding in both languages, while also showing no restriction in either code-switching condition. Child sequential bilinguals, however, showed the expected monolingual distinction between Spanish and English, and p-stranding was only accepted with Spanish determiner phrases extracted from an English prepositional phrase (i.e., Spanish-to-English). These findings support the previously reported differentiation between simultaneous and child sequential bilinguals regarding p-stranding, while expanding it to code-switching.

doi: 10.3390/languages7010045

Using generative syntactic theory regarding verb raising, predictions are made about adverb position in intra-sentential Spanish– English code-switching. Since both languages allow for non-raising, pre-verbal adverbs should be acceptably switched. However, since verb raising is only available in Spanish, post-verbal adverbs should only be allowed with a Spanish finite verb.

Spanish–English early bilinguals (n=24) completed a written acceptability judgment task with a 7-point Likert-type scale. The Spanish–English code-switched sentences contained a finite verb switched with a post-verbal or pre-verbal adverb. In addition, comparison sets of monolingual equivalents were tested, targeting adverb order in Spanish and English.

A total of 192 judgments were included in the analysis, and z-scores of the mean ratings provided by the participants were calculated. After a descriptive analysis of the results compared language and adverb order, statistical analyses were conducted via analyses of variance (ANOVAs).

Participants showed a preference for non-raising in English, while they accepted both orders in Spanish, but only with adverbs of completion and manner. For code- switching, non-raising was always acceptable, but verb raising varied. The availability of switched non-raising directly follows from the literature. However, the language of the finite verb did not predict availability of verb raising in code-switching. The results suggest that the language of the adverb is crucial to the availability of switching, not solely the verb.

The status of adverbs in code-switching has been left relatively unexplored. This study provides important details regarding adverb position both in mixed Spanish–English utterances and in monolingual contexts for this particular bilingual population.

These findings have a broader impact by providing data about adverb-position preferences in Spanish for a different community of speakers. In particular, it shows even more variability in the idiosyncratic behavior of different adverbs in Spanish.

doi: 10.1177/13670069211057955

There is continued debate on what determines the rule-governed behavior of intrasentential code-switching. Central to this debate is whether it is essential to differentiate between the languages involved, i.e., a matrix language and an embedded language. In favor of such an approach is Myers-Scotton’s (1993, 2002) Matrix Language Frame Model, whereas MacSwan’s (1999, 2014) Minimalist approach to code-switching operates independently of such a notion. To compare these two frameworks, a written Acceptability Judgment Task was completed by highly proficient Spanish-English bilinguals. The results suggest that the (un)grammaticality of the subject-predicate switch in embedded contexts does not align with the predictions made by the proposal by Jake (1994), an analysis that operates under the Matrix Language Frame Model. Proposals within the Minimalist approach to code-switching, both van Gelderen and MacSwan (2008) and González-Vilbazo and Koronkiewicz (2016), however, are effective at predicting grammaticality.

doi: 10.1075/ihll.26.12kor

The current study investigates whether there is variation among different types of control stimuli in code-switching (CS) research, how such stimuli can be used to accommodate heterogeneity, and how they can also be used as a baseline comparison of acceptability. A group of native Spanish–English bilinguals (n = 20) completed a written acceptability judgment task with a 7-point Likert scale. Five different types of control stimuli were included, with three types considered to be completely acceptable (complex-sentence switches, direct-object switches, and subject–predicate switches) and two types considered to be completely unacceptable (pronoun switches and present–perfect switches). Additionally, a set of present–progressive switches were included as a comparison, as their acceptability status is still actively debated. The participants as a whole exhibited the expected grammatical distinctions among the control stimuli, but with a high degree of individual variability. Pronoun switches and auxiliary verb switches were rated significantly lower than the complex-sentence switches, direct-object switches, and subject–predicate switches. These results show that control stimuli can also establish a baseline comparison of acceptability, and recommendations for inclusion in experimental CS research are provided.

doi:10.3390/languages4030067